Facts and Common Misconceptions

This page gives an overview of facts and misconceptions about large carnivores and coexistence in the European context.

FAQs on the biology and habits of the wolf in addition to coexistence questions can be found on the LIFE Wolfalps EU site: https://www.lifewolfalps.eu/en/wolf-faq/.

Which species of large carnivores live in Europe?

Overall, Europe hosts several large and stable large carnivore populations with thousands of individuals, many medium-sized and increasing populations that number in the hundreds of individuals, and a few small and declining populations with a few tens of individuals.

Brown bear
Brown bears are the third most abundant large carnivore in Europe. There are 10 populations with an estimated total number around 20,500 individuals in Europe. 6 of the 10 populations are increasing, the remaining 4 are stable. However, some populations remain very small, such as the isolated Central Apennine populations with an estimated number of 50 individuals¹.
Lynx
The estimated population of Eurasian lynx is c.a. 9000 individuals in Europe. There are 11 populations which are mainly stable. Some of the reintroduced or reinforces populations have started to increase, such as the Dinaric population, indicating reinforcement success. Others have stagnated, some at extremely small sizes. The Balkan lynx, the Critically Endangered subpopulation of the Eurasian lynx, remains small, isolated and in urgent need of conservation efforts¹.
Until recently the Iberian lynx was considered as the most endangered felid species in the world. Its distribution range is located only in SW Spain. After a dramatic 20th century decline (passing from 5-6000 individuals in the 1960ies to an estimated 160 individuals in 2002) intensive efforts (mainly under LIFE Program) for the species recovery have brought the total number of individuals back to the current estimate of more than 2000. In 2015 the IUCN has declassified the Iberian lynx conservation status from “Critically Endangered” to “Endangered” and to “Vulnerable”¹.
Wolf
Wolves are the second most abundant large carnivore species, with 23,000 individuals estimated in Europe. The wolf population has increased by 35% between 2016 and 2023, mainly due to the rapidly expanding Central European and Alpine populations. Of the 9 populations 8 are increasing¹.
Wolverine
The estimated total number of wolverine is 1,300 individuals in Europe. The Finnish (Karelian) population has increased slightly while the Scandinavian population has not changed significantly in recent years¹.
Golden jackal
The Golden jackal, is the most abundant large carnivore species in Europa and its population size (according to expert estimate and hunting bags) is estimated to be over 150,000 individuals. However, the specie’s monitoring remains unstructured and fragmented, preventing accurate estimations. Jackals are currently very dynamically expanding into central and western Europe. They are widespread in 14 European countries and present in small numbers in 8. In recent years they have been newly recorded in 4 countries (Finland, Norway, Spain and The Netherlands)¹.

What is the geographic distribution of large carnivores in Europe?

Brown bears

Brown bears presently occur permanently in 29 countries (permanent range 719,600 km²). Their distribution can be clustered into 10 populations, most of which have increased in recent years, especially, the Baltic population.
The total European range of brown bears has increased by 4,6% between 2016 and 2023².

Map showing bear distribution in Europe in 2022/2023 — © LCIE

Lynx

Eurasian lynx presently occur permanently in 25 countries (permanent range 940,300 km²) and can be clustered into 11 populations, five of them being native populations.
The total range has increased by 21,2% between 2016 and 2023.
In parts of its range, populations have begun to connect. The increase and connectivity are mainly due to natural expansion, new reintroductions and strengthening of already reintroduced populations through translocations.
Iberian lynx occurs only in the Iberian Peninsula and its range is very fragmented in S/SW Spain covering mainly the Doniana National and the Siera Morena areas, and in southern Portugal².

Wolves

Wolves currently occur permanently in 34 countries (1,103,500 km²) and can be clustered into 10 populations.
Wolves appear to have expanded their range by 40% between 2016 and 2023, however, 22% of that change can be attributed to new data (Ukraine) and changes in monitoring methods (Italian peninsula and Lativa).
The Central European distribution has greatly increased and now reaches into Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands².

Map showing wolf distribution in Europe in 2022/2023 — © LCIE

Wolverine

The wolverine, is only found in the three Fennoscandic countries, and permanently occurs over a total range of 745,00 km² in two populations².

Golden jackal

Golden jackals currently occur in 23 European countries and their total range (765,000 km²) has greatly increased, by 46% since 2016.
Their permanent distribution covers 250,431 km² in 3 populations, a large and connected continental population and two isolated populations on islands in Greece.
Jackal distribution has recently increased in 21 countries².

Common misconception 1: Large carnivores need wilderness areas to survive, large carnivores can be contained in protected areas

Wilderness in Europe is understood being areas “composed of native habitats and species, and large enough for the effective ecological functioning of natural processes. They are unmodified or only slightly modified and without intrusive or extractive human activity, settlements, infrastructure or visual disturbance.” There is often an assumption, based perhaps on the American idea of extensive national parks, that large carnivores need extensive wild areas to flourish. While it is clear that the recovery of large carnivores in Europe is linked to the increase of forest area and corresponding increase of prey species, large carnivores are not especially sensitive to human activities and can coexist with farming and forestry in a mixed landscape. While habitat does remain a limiting factor, it is not the most significant one³.

On the other hand, large carnivores do need space. Because of their predatory habits, their conservation needs to be planned on very wide spatial scales which span many intra- and international administrative and jurisdictional borders. In general, even the country-scale is too small for large carnivores needs and cross-border management must be considered. Protected areas (PA) (the Natura 2000 network) adds considerably to the protection of large carnivore habitat; however, most of its sites are too small to support interconnected sub‐populations that could form a viable population. Considering population structure, suitable habitat and minimum patch size, only very few countries are able to support viable populations of these species within their PA system. These results indicate that, even though PAs may contribute to the conservation of large carnivores, they are certainly not sufficient alone³.

Why have large carnivore numbers increased in Europe?

The reasons include the following: The existence of natural habitats and the improvement of their quality and connectivity in certain areas, despite the heavily humanized and fragmented European landscapes; the adaptive strategies of large carnivores to re-colonization of a large scope of human-dominated landscapes; the frame of the EU environmental policies and relevant European legislation aiming at conservation of biodiversity combined with context-specific management strategies; the support of the European public and specific rural communities and stakeholder groups in areas with large carnivores⁴.

Common misconception 2: Wolves have been reintroduced to Europe

Wolves have returned naturally across the EU. The increase of wolf populations and range in Europe is due to natural processes including dispersal of new individuals; re-colonization of former (historical range) and establishment of meta-populations.

While wolves have never been reintroduced, in a few cases bear populations have been augmented through population restocking-reintroduction (e.g. in Trento, Italy or the French Pyrenees). Reintroductions have however, been used most with lynx which does not naturally migrate easily (e.g. Switzerland, France, Germany)⁴.

Common misconception 3: Wolf populations are increasing exponentially

There are several types of population growth. In exponential growth a population grows increasingly fast up to an upper limit where it crashes. Logistical growth starts out like exponential growth but then levels off when the population hits the carrying capacity of the environment. The graph looks like a density-dependent “S” curve. The second type applies mostly to wolf populations.

This population growth pattern is also limited by several other key limiting factors such as habitat carrying capacity which limits growth of a population based on factors like food (prey), water, shelter, competition, immigration/emigration, etc. Hence some geographically marginal populations remain extremely threatened or decreasing. Additionally, large carnivores (and thus wolves), as key-apex predators have unique behavioural, biological and ecological traits that allow population auto-regulation at the level of carrying capacity.

For all these reasons it is rather unlikely for any wildlife population (including wolves) to increase exponentially, without reaching a level off status⁵.

Are all large carnivore populations doing equally well?

Iberian lynx/Balkan lynx: No, not all large carnivore populations are in favourable conservation status. Although the overall picture shows stabilization or positive population trends, some species with either very localized geographical distribution (i.e. Iberian lynx) or in very low densities (usually in the periphery of their distributional range (i.e. Balkan lynx, a subspecies of the Eurasian lynx) are in a rather precarious or a potentially endangered status⁶.
Brown bear/Wolf/Wolverine: Even in the case of the large carnivore populations which are doing well (i.e. brown bear, wolf, wolverine) fragments of their populations, again in the periphery of their distributional range, are in a more precarious and vulnerable status and conservation threats such as habitat fragmentation and intolerance leading to illegal killing, remain high. Conservation and management actions therefore vary considerably depending on the individual populations⁶.

Threats and limiting factors to the expansion of large carnivore populations

Large carnivores are impacted by a range of human activities. These include direct killing either legally through hunting or culling or illegally through poaching. Poaching often occurs where conflict related to livestock depredation is high. Loss of habitat and lack of connectivity of habitats can also limit populations as can disturbance through forestry activities or tourism. For lynx where the populations are smaller and less mobile, genetic factors, such as inbreeding also play a role. For wolf, hybridisation with dogs is a threat in some countries⁷.

A brown bear sitting next to a road. Picture was taken out of a car standing on that road. — © Fermoar - unsplash

How are large carnivores managed in Europe?

Bern Convention/EU Habitats Directive: Large carnivores across Europe are protected under the 1979 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention) and in the EU countries under the 1992 Habitats Directive. The EU Habitats Directive implements the Bern convention in the European Union (EU), adding stronger enforcement and reporting mechanisms. A key concept of the Directive is that all the species and habitats listed (no matter which annex) must be maintained in or restored to favourable conservation status (FCS). The types of action allowed to achieve FCS, vary depending on species or habitat⁸.
Annexes of the EU Habitats Directive: The protection afforded to species varies according to the Annexes they are listed in in the Directive. Annex II lists the species which require the designation of special areas of conservation (SACs), Annex IV lists strictly protected species (it is prohibited to deliberately capture, kill or disturb these species or their refuge areas/habitat) and Annex V lists species which can be exploited or hunted but only if this is compatible with maintaining them in FCS⁸.

Common misconception 4: Large carnivores cannot be hunted or culled in the EU

Bears, lynx and wolverine are strictly protected under Annex IV in all EU countries. The golden jackal is protected under annex V of the Habitats Directive in all EU countries where it is present. Wolves are currently included in Annex IV in the majority of EU countries but the following populations are in Annex V: Spanish populations north of the Duero, Greek populations north of the 39th parallel, Finnish populations within the reindeer management area, Bulgarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Polish and Slovak populations. The European Union is currently considering changing the protection status of the wolf more widely across the EU.

While species listed in Annex IV are strictly protected, derogations under article 16, permit removals from the population (lethal management) under particular circumstances (for example for protecting other fauna and flora or for preventing serious damages e.g. to crops or livestock or for public safety) and strict conditions (e.g. that all efforts have been made to prevent conflicts).

Culling and hunting are therefore often applied by European Member States. Derogations are increasingly put in place in the case of annex IV species. Hunting or culling is justified by those applying them as management measures on the grounds of reducing depredation of livestock by large carnivores, maintaining fear of humans or increasing human acceptance and tolerance of large carnivores and reducing poaching. However, there is no scientificevidence of a direct link between numbers of carnivores and level of conflicts. The impact of lethal management of large carnivore populations for any of these purposes is strongly dependent on local conditions and is strongly debated at societal and political levels⁹.

Can different species of large carnivore co-exist in the same area?

Yes. Most of the large carnivore species on the European continent are sympatric meaning that they can share the same biogeographic areas. Three large carnivore species (brown bear, wolf and Eurasian lynx) overlap over 593,800 km2 in Europe. In Fennoscandia all four species of large carnivores (brown bear, wolf, Eurasian lynx and wolverine) coexist and share the same areas over 171,500 km2. The same situation occurs in the Balkan region where three species of large carnivores (brown bear, wolf and Eurasian lynx) coexist¹⁰.

How much of a problem is wolf-dog hybridisation?

Hybridisation between wild and domesticated animals poses a complex wildlife conservation challenge. Wolf (Canis lupus) - dog (Canis (lupus) familiaris), hybridisation is likely to have occurred repeatedly over the history of dog domestication. The status of hybrids is complex and can be unclear on taxonomic, legal and practical grounds. It is often impossible to tell wolves and hybrid wolf-dogs apart from one another based on morphological characters , making management decisions difficult: genetic analysis is often necessary to confirm the identification. A significant step towards was taken in December 2014, when government representatives from all over Europe agreed on a unified approach to address the problem of hybridisation between wolves and dogs.

The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention agreed that removal of suspected hybrids should ‘only be carried out by bodies entrusted by the competent authorities with such a responsibility,’ while requesting national authorities to ‘adopt the necessary measures to prevent wolves from being intentionally or mistakenly killed as wolf-dog hybrids.’

Hybridisation also poses a potential conservation threat. It is an issue in the wolf range where stray dogs are present (southern and eastern Europe). The LIFE programme has financed several projects on this topic. The LCIE and Senkenberg institute are leading efforts to evaluate the extent of hybridisation. Most recently an international project funded by the Biodiversa programme “Wolfness” was established on the topic and have established a standard definition of hybrids and a methodology to detect them¹¹.

Common misconception 5: Hybrids are more common than wolves and are less afraid of people

In Europe, Wolf Dog Hybridization (WDH) has been detected in several countries, e.g. Norway, Latvia, Estonia, Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Greece, Slovenia and Serbia. While in several cases crossbreeding resulted in only one or few litters of hybrids in restricted areas, in other cases the introgression of dogs’ genes into the wild wolf population has been found to be widespread across substantial areas, though to different extents (from 5.6% in Galicia – Spain to more than 70% in the province of Grosseto – Italy).

So far the expert guess on WDH occurrence across Europe gives the highest rates in Croatia, Italy and Greece whereas in Spain, Slovenia and Romania WDH is more localized. It is considered that WDH is however, generally the case in small wolf populations where free-ranging (stray) dogs are commonly present. Controlling hybridisation is tackled by reducing the number of free-ranging dogs through capture programmes and through enforcing dog ownership responsibility. There is no evidence that dog-wolf hybrids are bolder or less afraid of people than wolves¹².

Are large carnivores aggressive to humans?

Attacks are very rare: Aggressiveness is a behavioural pattern/attribute that characterizes most wild fauna species but more specifically carnivores. Aggressiveness specifically oriented towards humans is however, considered to be a very rare phenomenon. Bear attacks are documented in few and isolated cases in northern Europe and the southeast Balkans under very specific circumstances (normally a defensive mechanism such as protection of offspring or food and/or territorial competition). While fatal wolf attacks on humans have been reported in the past, none has been recorded in the 21st century in Europe¹³.
Appropriate behaviour towards large carnivores: Approaching large carnivores however, is not to be recommended. All wild animals should be left alone, especially where they have young. Measures to reduce risks to humans from bears include information to tourists entering bear areas, proper waste management and farm carcass disposal as well as having intervention teams and set protocols in place to deal with any unusual behaviour from individual large carnivores. Much information is available on how to avoid attracting or “habituating” bears. The approach of encouraging “bear smart communities” has been adopted from approaches in Canada and the United states and put in place in several European countries¹³.
Addressing unusual wolf behaviour: Several member states have also put in place protocols to deal with wolves behaving unusually (also referred to as bold wolves). In many cases, the protocols help identify normal wolf behaviour but in case animals become food conditioned or particularly reliant of livestock as a food source, they may be culled. The LIFE WILDWOLVES project starting in 2023 in (8) partner countries aims also at addressing wolf behaviour around urban and peri-urban wolves through different actions including the operation of Wolf Emergency Teams, oriented public awareness campaigns, and management protocols.

Common misconception 6: Encounters with large carnivores necessarily result in harm to humans

Large carnivores will avoid interactions with humans and in the vast majority of cases, in large carnivore territories, humans will never be aware of their presence. Guidance is available in areas and times of year where encounters are possible, for example by making noise, staying in groups, keeping dogs on leads and avoiding leaving attractants such as waste in places where large carnivores might approach.

Deaths associated with large carnivores are extremely rare. Between 2000-2015, an average of 3 fatal encounters with bear per year were recorded in the EU, most of these in Romania. For comparison, in the EU in 2016, 3302 people were killed in assaults by other people and 29,156 car accidents. Cows, moose and deer (causing car accidents) cause significantly higher numbers of fatalities compared with large carnivores. For example in the UK alone in 2022-2023, 8 people were killed by cattle, 5 involved in agricultural activities and 3 members of the public. Dogs cause a similar number of annual fatalities to cattle. Between 2019-23, 29 people were killed by dogs in the UK (nearly 5 per year). This is not to say that either cattle or dogs are normally dangerous. Large carnivores are rarer and are better able to avoid encounters with humans¹⁴.

What is the "utility" of large carnivores in nature?

Large carnivores are predators and are therefore at the top of the trophic pyramid of the ecosystem. They thus play a crucial role in regulating ungulate populations, balancing the overall function of natural ecosystems. Ungulate populations have made dramatic recoveries in recent years which can bring conflicts from traffic accidents to disease transmission to crop damages. Some large carnivores are also scavengers (i.e. wolverine) and therefore also play a sanitary role in the ecosystem. Furthermore, omnivorous large carnivore species (i.e. brown bear), contribute through their diet cycle to plants and fruits seeds dispersal thus enhancing the vegetation structure and diversity in a given ecosystem. Ecosystem dynamics are complex and location-specific but there is no doubt that carnivores play an important role where there is natural prey¹⁵.

How can conflict related to large carnivores be addressed?

Conflicts about large carnivores can concern 1) the direct impacts of large carnivores on humans’ economic activities such as large carnivores depredating livestock, destroying beehives or damaging property, wolves killing hunting dogs or competition for quarry species with hunters. 2) conflicts between humans with different viewpoints on how large carnivores should be managed e.g. those wishing to protect large carnivores and those who believe that they should be hunted or those who believe they should be eradicated.

These differences in viewpoint may reflect deeper social conflicts (e.g. between rural and urban areas, between modern and traditional values, or between different social and economic classes). As symbolic species, large carnivores often trigger a fundamental debate about the future direction of the European landscape. This is the reason that there is rarely a direct link between the economic impacts of large carnivores and the level of conflict and conflict resolution does not just involve addressing the economic impacts of large carnivores.

“Resolution” in most cases does not mean that conflicts are addressed once and for all. Even when a problem had been successfully dealt with in the past, it might re-emerge in the future under a new frame. Local circumstances vary significantly in different locations and at different times. No previous solution can be celebrated as a panacea. Varying stakeholder composition, geographical and socio-cultural parameters, rural population trends, are all aspects which might affect the intensity of the conflicts related to large carnivores. For this reason, approaches involving stakeholders in setting up regional large carnivore platforms which deal with the issues on a case by case basis are currently receiving much attention (see "sources" section at the end of the page)¹⁶.

How well prepared are local communities to deal with increased numbers of large carnivores?

The geographical difference in attitudes of local communities towards large carnivores in European rural areas varies significantly. Livestock husbandry type and density of human settlements, for example, might influence attitudes of local communities towards large carnivores. Additionally, experience of living with large carnivores is very important. The stabilizing or increasing population trends of large carnivores have led to the expansion of species in areas where they have been absent for many decades. Local people in these areas across Europe are not used to living with large carnivores and livestock raising methods have changed to reflect this (e.g. no livestock guarding dogs are used). Such instances present substantial challenges for coexistence with large carnivores in the European rural environment¹⁷.

How many domestic animals are predated by large carnivores in Europe?

There is currently no one system for measuring and collecting information on causes of death of livestock in general or damages by predators specifically. The availability of data on livestock depends on whether a member state has a compensation system in place and how that system functions. Almost all EU member states do have some compensation system, however implementation practices vary. It is only worthwhile for livestock breeders to report damages if they have a reasonable likelihood of being compensated and this is not always the case. At the other end of the scale, in some countries, inspection is complicated by the terrain and compensation can be received even in cases where the certainty level is low.

According to the latest information gathered from member states, in the EU wolves annually kill at least 65,500 heads of livestock, 73% of them are sheep and goats, 19% cattle and 6% horses and donkeys, most of them horses bred for meat. Semi-domestic reindeer are also killed in Finland and in Sweden (figures difficult to access because of the compensation systems in place and the difficulties of finding dead animals). The highest damage to livestock according to available data occurs in Western European countries, but there is no complete information from some countries of Eastern Europe with large wolf populations, such as Bulgaria and Romania.

Spain (about 14,000 heads killed annually), France (12,000) and Italy (10,000) represent half of all livestock damage in the EU. Considering that the number of wolves in Spain (more than 300 packs) and in Italy (about 3,300 individuals) is much higher than that of France (about 1,100 wolves in 2023), this country is the one with the highest rates of livestock killed per wolf in the European Union. Other countries, such as Germany, Greece and Croatia, also show important damage to livestock.

Although these numbers are significant and represent an important pressure on livestock breeding in certain locations, the total reported damage on sheep and goats is around 0.07% of the total sheep and goat population (71 million heads)¹⁸.

By what means can the impact of large carnivores be reduced?

Compensation payments: The economic impacts of large carnivores can be addressed through the following measures:
Compensation payments in Europe are usually funded by national or regional governments in accordance with the relevant EU State Aid rules. They cover the direct costs of damages caused by large carnivores to livestock, infrastructure and beehives but also the indirect costs such as additional work and veterinary fees. They are alone however, not enough as they will not reduce depredation and the conflicts linked to the coexistence¹⁹.
Prevention measures: Prevention measures are a fundamental component of a comprehensive system to ensure coexistence. Measures (often tested in initially through LIFE projects) include different types of fencing, shepherding, livestock guarding dogs, night-time gathering of livestock, visual or acoustic deterrent devices. The effectiveness of these measures is highly dependent on their successful deployment and on the availability of sufficient resources and advice to support their implementation¹⁹.
Information, advice, awareness raising: Information, advice, awareness raising. Providing factually based information on large carnivores and on how conflicts can be avoided can assist in implementing impact-reduction measures. For example the Italian web site “Protect your livestock” provides detailed advice on the types of measures which can be used to protect livestock and the different funding schemes which are available in the Italian regions. The Carnivore Damage Prevention News newsletter, which has been supported through different LIFE projects, provides a well-regarded source of information sharing on livestock protection within the EU and internationally¹⁹.

Common misconception 7: Large carnivores are completely incompatible with pastoral farming

In the past, in the majority of European countries, traditional pastoral farming was based on the system of seasonal transhumance where shepherds remained with the flock and moved with them according to the season. These systems developed with the presence of large carnivores, and human presence and dogs were used to reduce losses. They included a certain tolerance for losses which generally remained small when protection measures were in place. This shows that traditionally, pastoral systems were viable despite the presence of carnivores.

These systems continue in certain countries but in many have been replaced by more intensive livestock or cultivated systems. In general, intensive livestock farming is less affected by large carnivores as animals are kept enclosed. The systems which present the greatest challenges, however, are extensive systems where protection measures have been abandoned due to the lack of need in the half century where large carnivores were not present. At the same time, these systems are valuable as they support certain habitats important for many rare European species. The return of large carnivores comes at the same time as many other pressures on extensive pastoral systems, which suffer from lack of competitiveness, infrastructure and investment in comparison with more intensive systems. For this reason, the additional psychological and economic stress caused by the return of the wolf, in particular, adds to already existing pressures on livestock breeders.

In many European countries, measures to protect livestock have been developed and applied successfully. Data on depredation of livestock is not easily comparable across the EU due to the use of different protection measures and compensation schemes. Measures are not necessarily easily transferable and no single measure can be 100% successful, but adequate technical solutions (often used in combination) can significantly reduce livestock losses to predators. The relevant authorities and stakeholders need to carefully design the prevention measures suitable to the different situations, to properly implement them (including maintenance), to monitor their effectiveness and to apply any necessary adjustment. Training, information, follow-up and technical assistance to the concerned operators are key elements and should be allocated adequate financial support²⁰.

Common misconception 8: An increase in large carnivore numbers means an increase in livestock damages

When large carnivores, especially wolves, return to an area from which they have been absent for a long time, damages to livestock, are generally the first noticeable sign of their presence. First analysis indicates however that while depredation increases with the spread to new areas, it does not necessarily increase with increased wolf numbers in one specific area. The relationship is complex and depends particularly on the availability of natural prey, landscape and the use of protection measures. Overall the trend is, after an initial increase, for a decrease in incidents as protection measures are put in place²¹.

Do large carnivores also bring benefits to local communities?

Large carnivores can also bring benefits to local communities. One of the most important benefits is the economic boost that large carnivores can provide is an added value to the wilderness attractiveness of a given natural area, thus encouraging tourism. This will have an overall positive effect on “green” tourism in the area, though it is clear that eco-tourism connected directly with large carnivores must be treated with care and not encourage people to interfere with behavioural patterns of large carnivores or attract them towards human settlements. Another example is the labelling of products produced in areas where large carnivores are present as “wolf or bear-friendly products”. Such labelling schemes can be used by farmers who have put in place appropriate protection measures²².

How are stakeholders' views and attitudes towards large carnivores taken into account in the development of policy?

Environmental policy has undergone significant transition from top-down approaches to a stronger involvement of stakeholders. Acknowledging the cultural and social nature of conflict over wolves, participatory processes are seen as having significant conflict mitigation potential, for increasing trust between stakeholders. The EU Platform on Coexistence between People and Large Carnivores is itself an example of such an approach. Through a pilot project, the EU institutions supported the establishment of regional platforms in a range of countries²³.
A range of LIFE projects, for example LIFE EUROLARGECARNIVORES which started in late 2017 also put in place collaborative actions and sharing information across large carnivore hotspots in Europe. On national and regional levels, similar approaches are used and many member states have set up platforms themselves²³.
Additionally, stakeholder groups discussing wider conservation policy and its implementation on the EU and national level often address the topic of large carnivores. This type of approach can be integrated into broader species management planning (as required under the habitats directive), providing for an overall coherent framework for the implementation of protection requirements. To support this approach, the EU Platform and Regional Platforms have produced a toolkit supporting the establishment of stakeholder exchange platforms²³.

Are there concrete examples (best practice) of successful conflict resolution that interested parties can refer to?

Best practice examples

The Platform has gathered further best practice examples which break down example activities as follows: provision of advice / awareness raising; provision of practical support; understanding viewpoints; innovative financing and monitoring. A first analysis can be found in a Platform-commissioned report on supporting good practice for coexistence²⁴.

Concrete actions

In addition, several EU-LIFE projects have financially supported concrete actions for improving human-large carnivores’ coexistence, such as:

Establishment of compensation schemes for damage caused by large carnivores;
Introduction of damage prevention measures for beehives, crops and livestock, including providing additional herdsmen, installation of electric fences and donation of Livestock Guarding Dogs (LGDs);
Improvement of natural sources of prey and other food (e.g. fruit trees) in order to keep away large carnivores from human areas and livestock herds or flocks;
Operation of Bear Emergency Teams for intervention in cases of extended bear-human conflicts and of problems created by habituated bears approaching human settlements;
Stakeholder consultation and involvement;
Adoption of new agri-environmental measures with the purpose of helping the development of agricultural policies towards a sustainable and nature-friendly future²⁴.

Is EU funding available to support these measures?

EU LIFE Programme: Yes. The EU LIFE programme has supported many individual projects related to coexistence on the basis of annual competitive calls for proposals. Actions supported can include demonstration activities and testing of innovative solutions for: livestock protection measures, vulnerability analysis of grazing systems, to assess the risk of predation and suggest the most appropriate strategy to protect livestock. More information is available from several reports commissioned by the European Commission²⁵.
Common Agricultural Policy: The Common Agricultural Policy can provide support for investments in preventive measures, such as in the purchase of protective fence or purchase of guard dogs (which, as non-productive investments, can be financed up to 100 %). Maintenance costs covering additional labour costs for farmers to check and maintain the protective fence or to move the fence, as well as for feed and veterinary costs for the guard dogs may be covered by agri-environment-climate payments or eco-schemes. The CAP is indeed used in several Member States such as France, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia or Spain to fund livestock protection measures, including, for instance, salaries of shepherds, fences and livestock guarding dogs. Examples of how this has been used to fund coexistence measures as well as future potential of the fund are available on the Platform website²⁵.
State aid and PAFs: National funding (State Aid) can also provide support for investments in preventive measures; support for restoring destroyed agricultural potential such as investments in replacing livestock; compensation for damages or veterinary costs or costs related to the search for missing animals.
A comprehensive approach to funding and supporting measures is needed within a member state (and ideally cross-borders between member states sharing the same large carnivore population). Establishing a Species Action/Management Plan is a first step in this regard. Member states should reflect the main conservation and conflict issues large carnivores in their Priority Action Frameworks (PAFs), identifying the associated priorities and financial needs and laying out how they plan to fulfil them²⁵.

What is the EU Platform?

The EU Platform on Coexistence between People and Large Carnivores is a grouping of organisations representing different interests groups affected by and affecting the conservation of large carnivores who have agreed a joint mission: "To promote ways and means to minimize, and wherever possible find solutions to, conflicts between human interests and the presence of large carnivore species, by exchanging knowledge and by working together in an open-ended, constructive and mutually respectful way"

Seven stakeholder organisations are members of the EU Platform which is also supported by the European Commission²⁷:

How will Platforms contribute in improving large carnivore-human coexistence?

EU Platform members acknowledge that human-large carnivore coexistence is not an easy target to achieve in all locations. There are many tensions to address and many more such tensions are expected to emerge under current socio-economic trends in a changing European countryside. The Platform aims to build on best practice to promote human-large carnivore coexistence. It also wishes to create a novel “space” of stakeholder interaction, where stakeholders can discuss the costs and benefits related to large carnivore conservation and management and find means to address conflict, in their effort to develop a common vision. In order to do this, the Platform exchanges information on a regular bases as well as organising annual meetings and regional workshops in areas of ongoing conflict. Additionally it gathers good practice examples and commissions background research and information gathering which is made available on its website.

Conflicts on large carnivores vary significantly across the EU, depending for example, on the socio-economic activities in the areas which large carnivores are returning to and the biogeographic and natural conditions. For this reason, the EU Platform supported the establishment of similar regional groupings (Regional and local large carnivore platforms) which tackle similar problems in areas of ongoing conflict across the EU. Each platform came up with a range of concrete actions, agreed upon by the participating stakeholders to adapt to living with large carnivores according to the local situation. These ranged from measures to prevent bear conflicts with ecotourism in Romania to promotion of specific products from livestock farming in Italy²⁷.

Sources

Within the accordeon below, you can find the sources we have drawn the information on this website from.